Investigatory Project “ Kaymito Leaves Decoction as Antiseptic Mouthwash ” Essay

Introduction 1.1 Problem Statement Fractures are prevalent in natural and synthetic structural media, even in the best engineered materials. We find fractures in bedrock, in sandstone aquifers and oil reservoirs, in clay layers and even in unconsolidated materials (Figures 1.1 to 1.4). Fractures are also common in concrete, used either as a structural material or as a liner for storage tanks (Figure 1.5). Clay liners used in landfills, sludge and brine disposal pits or for underground storage tanks can fracture, releasing their liquid contents to the subsurface (Figure 1.6). Even â€Å"flexible† materials such as asphalt fracture with time (Figure 1.7). The fact that fractures are inevitable has led to spending billions of research dollars to construct â€Å"safe† long-term (10,000 years or more) storage for high-level nuclear waste (Savage, 1995; IAEA, 1995), both to determine which construction techniques are least likely to result in failure and what are the implications of a failure, in terms of release to the environment and potential contamination of ground water sources or exposure of humans to high levels of radioactivity. Why do materials fail? In most cases, the material is flawed from its genesis. In crystalline materials, it may be the inclusion of one different atom or molecule in the structure of the growing crystal, or simply the juncture of two crystal planes. In depositional materials, different grain types and sizes may be laid down, resulting in layering which then becomes the initiation plane for the fracture. Most materials fail because of mechanical stresses, for example the weight of the overburden, or heaving (Atkinson, 1989; Heard et al., 1972). Some mechanical stresses are applied constantly2 until the material fails, others are delivered in a sudden event. Other causes of failure are thermal stresses, drying and wetting cycles and chemical dissolution. After a material fractures, the two faces of the fracture may be subject to additional stresses which either close or open the fracture, or may subject it to shear. Other materials may temporarily or permanently deposit in the fracture, partially or totally blocking it for subsequent fluid flow. The fracture may be almost shut for millions of years, but if the material becomes exposed to the surface or near surface environment, the resulting loss of overburden or weathering may allow the fractures to open. In some cases, we are actually interested in introducing fractures in the subsurface, via hydraulic (Warpinski, 1991) or pneumatic fracturing (Schuring et al., 1995), or more powerful means, to increase fluid flow in oil reservoirs or at contaminated sites. Our particular focus in this study is the role that fractures play in the movement of contaminants in the subsurface. Water supply from fractured bedrock aquifers is common in the United States (Mutch and Scott, 1994). With increasing frequency contaminated fractured aquifers are detected (NRC, 1990). In many cases, the source of the contamination is a Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (NAPL) which is either in pools or as residual ganglia in the fractures of the porous matrix. Dissolution of the NAPL may occur over several decades, resulting in a growing plume of dissolved contaminants which is transported through the fractured aquifer due to natural or imposed hydraulic gradients. Fractures in aquitards may allow the seepage of contaminants, either dissolved or in their own phase, into water sources. Fluid flow in the fractured porous media is of significance not only in the context of contaminant transport, but also in the production of oil from reservoirs, the generation of steam for power from geothermal reservoirs, and the prediction of structural integrity or failure of large geotechnical structures, such as dams or foundations. Thus, the results of this study have a wide range of applications. The conceptual model of a typical contaminant spill into porous media has been put forward by Abriola (1989), Mercer and Cohen (1990), Kueper and McWhorter (1991) and Parker et al. (1994). In some cases, the contaminant is dissolved in water and thus3 travels in a fractured aquifer or aquitard as a solute. Fractures provide a fast channel for widely distributing the contaminant throughout the aquifer and also result in contaminant transport in somewhat unpredictable directions, depending on the fracture planes that are intersected (Hsieh et al., 1985). More typically a contaminant enters the subsurface as a liquid phase separate from the gaseous or aqueous phases present (Figure 1.8). The NAPL may be leaking from a damaged or decaying storage vessel (e.g. in a gasoline station or a refinery) or a disposal pond, or may be spilt during transport and use in a manufacturing process (e.g. during degreasing of metal parts, in the electronics industry to clean semiconductors, or in an airfield for cleaning jet engines). The NAPL travels first through the unsaturated zone, under three-phase flow conditions, displacing air and water. The variations in matrix permeability, due to the heterogeneity of the porous medium, result in additional deviations from vertical flow. If the NAPL encounters layers of slightly less permeable materials (e.g. silt or clay lenses, or even tightly packed sand), or materials with smaller pores and thus a higher capillary entry pressure (e.g. NAPL entering a tight, water-filled porous medium), it will tend to flow mostly in the horizontal direction until it encounters a path of less resistance, either more permeable or with larger pores. Microfractures in the matrix are also important in allowing the NAPL to flow through these lowpermeability lenses. When the NAPL reaches the capillary fringe, two scenarios may arise. First, if the NAPL is less dense than water (LNAPL, e.g. gasoline, most hydrocarbons), then buoyancy forces will allow it to â€Å"float† on top of the water table. The NAPL first forms a small mound, which quickly spreads horizontally over the water table (Figure 1.9). When the water table rises due to recharge of the aquifer, it displaces the NAPL pool upward, but by that time the saturation of NAPL may be so low that it becomes disconnected. Disconnected NAPL will usually not flow under two-phase (water and NAPL) conditions. Connected NAPL will move up and down with the movements of the water table, being smeared until becomes disconnected. If the water table goes above the disconnected NAPL, it will begin to slowly dissolve. NAPL in the unsaturated zone will4 slowly volatilize. The rates of dissolution and volatilization are controlled by the flow of water or air, respectively (Powers et al., 1991; Miller et al., 1990; Wilkins et al., 1995; Gierke et al, 1990). A plume of dissolved NAPL will form in the ground water, as well as a plume of volatilized NAPL in the unsaturated zone. If the NAPL is denser than water (DNAPL, e.g. chlorinated organic solvents, polychlorinated biphenyls, tars and creosotes), then once it reaches the water table it begins to form a mound and spread horizontally until either there is enough mass to overcome the capillary entry pressure (DNAPL into a water saturated matrix) or it finds a path of less resistance into the water-saturated matrix, either a fracture or a more porous/permeable region. Once in the saturated zone, the DNAPL travels downward until either it reaches a low enough saturation to become disconnected (forming drops or â€Å"ganglia†) and immobile, or it finds a low-permeability layer. If the layer does not extend very far, the DNAPL will flow horizontally around it. In many cases, the DNAPL reaches bedrock (Figure 1.10). The rock usually contains fractures into which the DNAPL flows readily, displacing water. The capillary entry pressure into most fractures is quite low, on the order of a few centimeters of DNAPL head (Kueper and McWhorter, 1991). Flow into the fractures continues until either the fracture becomes highly DNAPL saturated, or the fracture is filled or closed below, or the DNAPL spreads thin enough to become disconnected. The DNAPL may flow into horizontal fractures within the fracture network. In terms of remediation strategies, DNAPLs in fractured bedrock are probably one of the most intractable problems (National Research Council, 1994). They are a continuous source of dissolved contaminants for years or decades, making any pumping or active bioremediation alternative a very long term and costly proposition. Excavation down to the fractured bedrock is very expensive in most cases, and removal of the contaminated bedrock even more so. Potential remediation alternatives for consideration, include dewatering the contaminated zone via high-rate pumping and then applying Soil Vapor Extraction to remove volatile DNAPLs, or applying steam to mobilize and volatilize the DNAPL towards a collection well. An additional option is to use5 surfactants, either to increase the dissolution of DNAPL or to reduce its interfacial tension and thus remobilize it (Abdul et al., 1992). An issue with remobilizing via surfactants is the potential to drive the DNAPLs further down in the aquifer or bedrock, complicating the removal. If an effective remediation scheme is to be engineered, such as Soil Vapor Extraction, steam injection or surfactant-enhanced dissolution or mobilization, we need to understand how DNAPLs flow through fractures. Flow may be either as a solute in the aqueous phase, as two separate phases (DNAPL-water) or as three phases (DNAPL, water and gas, either air or steam). Another complication in any remediation scheme, not addressed in this study, is how to characterize the fracture network. Which are the fractures that carry most of the flow? What is their aperture and direction? What is the density of fracturing in a particular medium? Are the fractures connected to other fractures, probably in other planes? How does one sample enough of the subsurface to generate a good idea of the complexity involved? Some techniques are beginning to emerge to determine some of the most important parameters. For example, pumping and tracer tests (McKay et al., 1993; Hsieh et al., 1983) may provide enough information to determine the mean mechanical and hydraulic aperture of a fracture, as well as its main orientation. Geophysical techniques like seismic imaging, ground-penetrating radar and electrical conductivity tests are being improved to assist in the determination of fracture zones (National Research Council, 1996). However, there is room for significant improvement in our current ability to characterize fractures in the subsurface. Even if we come to understand how single and multiphase flow occurs in a fracture, and the interactions between the fracture and the porous matrix surrounding it, how do we describe all these phenomena in a modeling framework? Clearly, we cannot describe every fracture in a model that may consider scales of tens, hundreds or thousands of meters in one or more directions. One approach is to consider the medium as an â€Å"equivalent continuum† (Long, 1985), where the small-scale properties are somehow averaged in the macroscopic scale. Probably the best solution for averaging properties is to use a stochastic description of properties such as permeability (or6 hydraulic conductivity) including the effect of fractures on overall permeability, diffusivity, sorption capacity, grain size, wettability, etc. Another approach, first developed in the petroleum industry, is to consider a â€Å"dual porosity/dual permeability† medium (Bai et al., 1993; Zimmerman et al., 1993; Johns and Roberts, 1991; Warren and Root, 1963), referring to the porosity and permeability of the matrix and the fracture. Diffusive or capillary forces drive the contaminants, or the oil and its components, into or out of the matrix, and most advective flow occurs in the fractures. None of these models has yet been validated through controlled experiments. 1.2 Research Objectives The objectives of this research are:  · To characterize the fracture aperture distribution of several fractured porous media at high resolution;  · To study the transport of a contaminant dissolved in water through fractured media, via experimental observation;  · To study the physical processes involved in two- and three-phase displacements at the pore scale;  · To observe two- and three-phase displacements in real fractured porous media;  · To bring the experimental observations into a modeling framework for predictive purposes. 1.3 Approach7 To understand single and multiphase flow and transport processes in fractures, I first decided to characterize at a high level of resolution the fracture aperture distribution of a number of fractured rock cores using CAT-scanning. With this information, I determined the geometry and permeability of the fractures, which I then use to construct a numerical flow model. I also use this information to test the validity of predictive models that are based on the assumed statistics of the aperture distribution. For example, stochastic models (Gelhar, 1986) use the geometric mean of the aperture distribution to predict the transmissivity of a fracture, and show that the aperture variance and correlation length can be used to predict the dispersivity of a solute through a fracture. These models have not been, to my knowledge, been tested experimentally prior to this study. I compare these theoretical predictions of fracture transmissivity and dispersivity of a contaminant, with experimental results, both from the interpretation of the breakthrough curve of a non-sorbing tracer and from CAT-scans of the tracer movement through the fractured cores. To study multiphase displacements at the pore scale, we use a physical â€Å"micromodel†, which is a simile of a real pore space in two dimensions, etched onto a silicon substrate. The advantage of having a realistic pore space, which for the first time has the correct pore body and pore throat dimensions in a micromodel, is that we can observe multiphase displacements under realistic conditions in terms of the balance between capillary and viscous forces. I conduct two- and three-phase displacements to observe the role that water and NAPL layers play in the mobilization of the various phases. The micromodels are also used to study the possible combinations of double displacements, where one phase displaces another which displaces a third phase. The pore scale observations have been captured by Fenwick and Blunt (1996) in a threedimensional, three-phase network model which considers flow in layers and allows for double displacements. This network model then can produce three-phase relative permeabilities as a function of phase saturation(s) and the displacement path (drainage, imbibition or a series of drainage and imbibition steps).8 In addition, I use the fracture aperture information to construct capillary pressuresaturation curves for two phase (Pruess and Tsang, 1990) and three phases (Parker and Lenhard, 1987), as well as three-phase relative permeabilities (Parker and Lenhard, 1990). The fracture aperture distribution is also an input to a fracture network model which I use to study two-phase displacements (drainage and imbibition) under the assumption of capillary-dominated flow. To observe two- and three-phase displacements at a larger scale, in real fractured cores, I use the CAT-scanner. I can observe the displacements at various time steps, in permeable (e.g. sandstones) and impermeable (e.g. granites) fractured media, determining the paths that the different phases follow. These observations are then compared with the results of the network model as well as with more conventional numerical simulation. 1.4 Dissertation Overview The work is presented in self-contained chapters. Chapter 2 deals with the high resolution measurement and subsequent statistical characterization of fracture aperture. Chapter 3 uses the fracture aperture geostatistics to predict transmissivity and diffusivity of a solute in single-phase flow through a fracture, which is then tested experimentally. We also observe the flow of a tracer inside the fracture using the CAT-scanner, and relate the observations to numerical modeling results. Chapter 4 presents the theory behind the flow characteristics at the pore scale as well as the micromodel observations of two- and three-phase flow. In Chapter 5, twophase flow in fractured and unfractured porous media is presented, comparing CATscanned observations of various two-phase flow combinations (imbibition, drainage and water flooding) against numerical modeling results. Chapter 6 presents three-phase flow9 in fractures, comparing numerical results against CAT-scanner observations. Finally, Chapter 7 considers the engineering relevance of these studies. 1.5 References Atkinson, B. K., 1989: Fracture Mechanics of Rock, Academic Press, New York, pp. 548 Abdul, A. S., T. L. Gibson, C. C. Ang, J. C. Smith and R. E. Sobczynski, 1992: Pilot test of in situ surfactant washing of polychlorinated biphenyls and oils from a contaminated site, Ground Water, 30:2, 219-231 Abriola, L.,: 1989: Modeling multiphase migration of organic chemicals in groundwater systems – A review and assessment, Environmental Health Perspectives, 83, 117-143 Bai, M., D. Elsworth, J-C. Roegiers, 1993: Multiporosity/multipermeability approach to the simulation of naturally fractured reservoirs, Water Resources Research, 29:6, 1621-1633 Fenwick, D. H. and M. J. Blunt: 1996, Three Dimensional Modeling of Three Phase Imbibition and Drainage, Advances in Water Resources, (in press) Gelhar, L. W., 1986: Stochastic subsurface hydrology: From theory to applications., Water Resources Res., 22(9), 1355-1455. Gierke, J. S., N. J. Hutzler and J. C. Crittenden, Modeling the movement of volatile organic chemicals in columns of unsaturated soil, Water Resources Research, 26:7, 1529-1547 Heard, H. C., I. Y. Borg, N. L. Carter and C. B. Raleigh, 1972: Flow and fracture of rocks, Geophysical Monograph 16, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D. C. Hsieh, P. A., S. P. Neuman, G. K. Stiles and E. S. Simpson, 1985: Field determination of the threedimensional hydraulic conductivity of anisotropic media: 2. Methodology and application to fracture rocks, Water Resources Research, 21:11, 1667-1676 Hsieh, P. A., S. P. Neuman and E. S. Simpson, 1983: Pressure testing of fractured rocks- A methodology employing three-dimensional cross-hole tests, Report NUREG/CR-3213 RW, Dept. of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721 IAEA, 1995: The principles of radioactive waste management, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna Johns, R. A. and P. V. Roberts, 1991: A solute transport model for channelized flow in a fracture. Water Resources Res. 27(8): 1797-1808. Kueper, B. H. and D. B. McWhorter, 1991: The behavior of dense, nonaqueous phase liquids in fractured clay and rock, Ground Water, 29:5, 716-728 Long, J. C. S., 1985: Verification and characterization of continuum behavior of fractured rock at AECL Underground Research Laboratory, Report BMI/OCRD-17, LBL-14975, Batelle Memorial Institute, Ohio McKay, L. D., J. A. Cherry and R. W. Gillham, 1993: Field experiments in a fractured clay till, 1. Hydraulic conductivity and fracture aperture, Water Resources Research, 29:4, 1149-1162 Mercer, J. W. and R. M. Cohen, 1990: A review of immiscible fluids in the subsurface: properties, models, characterization and remediation, J. of Contaminant Hydrology, 6, 107-163 Miller, C. T., M. M. Poirier-McNeill and A. S. Mayer, 1990: Dissolution of trapped nonaqueous phase liquids: mass transfer characteristics, Water Resources Research, 26:11, 2783-2796 Mutch, R. D. and J. I. Scott, 1994: Problems with the Remediation of Diffusion-Limited Fractured Rock Systems. Hazardous Waste Site Soil Remediation: Theory and Application of Innovative Technologies. New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc. National Research Council, 1994: Alternatives for ground water cleanup, National Academy Press, Washington, D. C. National Research Council, 1996: Rock Fracture and Fracture Flow: Contemporary Understanding and Applications, Committee on Fracture Characterization and Fluid Flow, National Academy Press, Washington, D. C. (in press). Parker, J. C. and R. J. Lenhard, 1987: A model for hysteretic constitutive relations governing multiphase flow: 1. Saturation-pressure relations, Water Resources Research, 23:12, 2187-219610 Parker, J. C. and R. J. Lenhard, 1990: Determining three-phase permeability-saturation-pressure relations from two-phase system measurements, J. Pet. Sci. and Eng., 4, 57-65 Parker, B. L., R. W. Gillham and J. A. Cherry, 1994: Diffusive disappearance of immiscible-phase organic liquids in fractured geologic media, Ground Water, 32:5, 805-820 Powers, S. E., C. O. Loureiro, L. M. Abriola and W. J. Weber, Jr., 1991: Theoretical study of the significance of nonequilibrium dissolution of nonaqueous phase liquids in subsurface systems, Water Resources Research, 27:4, 463-477 Pruess, K. and Y. W. Tsang, 1990: On two-phase relative permeability and capillary pressure of roughwalled rock fractures, Water Resources Research, 26:9, 1915-1926 Reitsma, S. and B. H. Kueper, 1994: Laboratory measurement of capillary pressure-saturation relationships in a rock fracture, Water Resources Research, 30:4, 865-878 Savage, D., 1995: The scientific and regulatory basis for the geological disposal of radioactive waste, John Wiley, New York Schuring, J. R., P. C. Chan and T. M. Boland, 1995: Using pneumatic fracturing for in-situ remediation of contaminated sites, Remediation, 5:2, 77-90 Norman R. Warpinski, 1991: Hydraulic fracturing in tight, fissured media, SPE 20154, J. Petroleum Technology, 43:2, 146-209 Warren , J. E. and P. J. Root, 1963: The behavior of naturally fractured reservoirs, Soc. Pet. Eng. J., 3, 245-255 Wilkins, M. D., L. M. Abriola and K. D. Pennell, 1995: An experimental investigation of rate-limited nonaqueous phase liquid volatilization in unsaturated porous media: Steady state mass transfer, Water Resources Research, 31:9, 2159-2172 Zimmerman, R. W., G. Chen, T. Hadgu and G S. Bodvarsson, 1993: A numerical dual-porosity model with semianalytical treatment of fracture/matrix flow, Water Resources Research, 29:7, 2127-2137

The Influence of the Internet on Modern Society.

?The influence of the internet on modern society. CSC 1015 By Ryan Foreman 091811594 Introduction This essay focuses on the impact that the interent has had on modern society. I will give a brief history of the internet, talking about its origins and the key developments that have occured up until now. Then look at how the internet has changed society so far, including how it has changed social interactions, e-commerce and jobs. Also discussing the advantages and disadvatages of the interent and if we are better of with the internet, how i think the internet will develop and finally drawing my own personal conclusion. History of the internet – Before the invention of practical computers, people had visioned concepts of the internet Mountbatten, (1946 cited in Naughton,2000) thought that â€Å"Morse operators would be replaced by automatic apparatus . . . a single unified world-wide network of stations would be set up over which messages would be passed automatically. † Mountbatten's theory is simular to the function of e-mails. The term â€Å"father of the internet† has been thrown abouut, this is because so many people have contributed to the development of the internet three names always occur Vannevar Bush, Norbert Wiener and J. C. R Licklider. My personal opinion is that it was Paul Baran, this is because of his work on packet switched networks Naughton, (2000) â€Å"The core of Baran's algorithm was a constantly updated table containg data about how many ‘hops' were needed for a message to reach every other node in the system. † This is the idea of packet switching. The first form of the public internet was developed by CERN and invented by Tim Berners-lee he was the first person to communicate from a HTTP client to a server via the internet. Since the internet has become avaliable it has had millions of users, the internet have expanded vastly from being able to communicate from one computer to another to having television channels broadcasted live. How the internet has changed society so far. Society has been able to become socially active online with social networking sites such as facebook, myspace and Instant messaging services, i think the reason this has become popular is because these websites and programs are free and the ease of access, allowing people anywhere to talk to anyone in the world providing they have internet access. High street stores, have developed websites to advertise what they have instore online, giving the user the abilty to buy the product online and have it delivered to their house without having to go to the high street, i see this as a great advantage to people who live in remote locations, do not have mobile transport or are unable to travel, having an online store appeals to alot more people and gives the comapny a larger market. The internet has created many jobs, with the development of servers people are needed to maintain them, well as website developers and people needed to develop new technologies for the internet. Banks now allow customers to monitor their accounts online,[6] â€Å"49% of internet users access internet banking. † giving them more control over their account and they can check themselves. I personally think that this is a bad idea because of the risk of fraud and people becoming paranoid about their money, on the other hand account holders can also keep track of their finances incase illegal transactions are taking place. Thanks to the internet employees can work from anywhere, saving office space and capital costs on bulidings, i think that this has changed alot of workplace ethics, social workplace interaction has changed because employees are not working together in one place, although if employees are happy to work from home they may have higher job satisfaction. The benefits of the internet In the following paragraph i will discuss the advantage of the internet in modern day society. The interent has created new was of communication, such s instant messaging and video confencing but i think that the biggest influence is e-mail [1]†The use of e-mail is having a great impact on society. † E-mail has changed communication that now businesses use it. [1] â€Å"E-mail is a very fast way to work that reflects very well the nature of business today. † because of its efficiency, cost and ease of use e-mail has become a favoured method of communication. Business has thived on the intern et, internet business are able to reach a wider market [2]†Through the internet, a business of any size can compete in the global marketplace. In fact, on the internet, the size of an organization's operation makes little difference because the internet is an open environment. † because anyone has access to the internet businesses can reach anyone also giving the customer a wider choice of products. The internet has also seen new markets for jobs appear [3]†over the last decade or so the Internet has created 1. 2 million jobs, many paying higher salaries than average. † because of the new developments there are more people needed to perform research maintain and manage these areas of the internet. The dangers of the internet. In this paragraph i will be looking at the disadvantages of the internet. There are dangers of online communication such as social networks where users can lie about who they are [4]â€Å"Megan thought she was being abused by 16-year-old Josh Evans, she was actually talking to Lori Drew, the 49-year-old mother of one of her former friends who, it is alleged, had set up a fake profile to taunt Megan. † in social networking sites it is very easy for people to lie about who they are and trick other people. Businesses using online transactions have become victim to cyber-crime, there are many forms of cyber-crime, hacking involves gaining information without the users permission and misusing it, Cyber-crime is a huge part crime in todays society and is still growing [5]â€Å"Online theft costs $1 trillion a year, the number of attacks is rising sharply and too many people do not know how to protect themselves† because many businesses don't know how to protect themselves are being preyed on by hackers. Since e-mails have become mainstream less letters have been sent [6] â€Å"The impact of the internet and other communication technologies, such as mobile phones, has been so great that it has actually severed the link between the postal market and economic growth. † this decline in the postal market may be [6] â€Å"the rapid increase of internet access, with 70% of homes in the UK now online. † and also [6] â€Å"87% of internet users send e-mails. † because so many people have access to the internet and e-mails post is becoming redundant. If the benefits outways the dangers In this paragraph I will draw a conclusion on whether the benefits of the internet outway the dangers. Businesses have hugely benefitted from the internet with the access to a wider market, but a major disadvantage is cyber-crime one crime in specific fraud. I beleive the advantage outways the disadvantage because there are many ways businesses can protect themselves against fraud with software and training. Social networks have a huge advantage of being able to communicate with vast amounts of people from anywhere at any time, but people many younger internet users are targeted and negatively influenced over these sites, these influences can be stopped if the correct action can be taken a careful use of these sites. There have been so many jobs created by the internet because of all the new markets being created, aswell as all of these jobs being created many jobs have been lost [6]â€Å"55,000 jobs lost since 2002. . There have been many more jobs created than lost so far so i see the internet being an advantage. Summary The internet has vastly changed society through the many different areas that i have looked at, communication has greatly benefitted by having fast, easy and cheap communication, businesses have been able to reach a larger market and customers can choose from a wider range of products, more skilled jobs have been created. The internet has also created negative aspects such as communication and businesses have xperienced crime and online bullying, also many jobs have been lost because less people are using some services that the internet can now provide. My own personal experience of the internet has been of all of the areas discussed and i have always had good experiences. In conclusion the internet has created so many new jobs and markets rather than taken them away, as [6]â€Å"70% of homes in the UK now online. † it has affect a huge amount of the UK society and had a positive affect or people wouldn't use it.

Whats the Relationship Between Communication and Identity

Communication and identity, many wonder if these words come together? Or wether or not they can work in accord ? Most people would testify different, but in all actuality they can and do more often than one expect, depending on which channels you use and in which context, the way you communicate along with your identity will undergo some modifications, and that without forgetting to include what a big role your gender, social, and cultural identities plays in that as well .As a source to reinforce my theory in this paper I will discuss what I've learned but not limited from Chapter one and two of Communication in a Changing World by Bethami A. Dobkin & Roger C. Pace but also will add one or two real life examples about the relationship between communication and identity, and also has a conclusion this paper will discuss the differences in when I communicate with gender, cultural and social identities in both a face-to-face and online environments.By definition to communicate is to cr eate and share meaning through the use of symbol (The words, images, gestures, and expressions that we use to represent our thoughts, ideas, beliefs, and feelings. ) through a distinctive process, whereas identity is the conception of yourself as a member of group or category (Dobkin & Pace, 2006). The relationship between communication and identity is normal when communicating is usually from a social standpoint. The things we mostly communicate about our identity are either but not limited to how we feel or the way we would like to come off to others.Communication is another form of representation. A lot of the times, we associate ourselves with either who we are or who we want to be. It is also what we go through or what we envision that determine the way we respond or what we say to others. For example, sex can very well determine your occupation and age can determine your hobbies or recreations. Sexual orientation can determine who your friends are and the places you will hang out and ethnicity can determine your opinions or the ethnicity of your peers.

What price choice Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

What price choice - Research Paper Example Through their literary artistry and political ideologies, these literary and historical figures made their own set of choices which impacted modern society. A person’s choice can alter one’s perception of life in general; its influence can expand infinitely and thus, choices do not only refer to what one prefers but what legacy he desires to make to the people around him. William Ernest Henley, through his poem â€Å"Invictus,† illustrates what life is and choice as a leading factor to affect one’s destiny. The last two verses of his poem create an image of life as a ship, where the person is â€Å"the master of his fate† and â€Å"the captain of his soul† (Henley 15-16). Patrick Lim, a professional business coach, argues in his essay, â€Å"The Art of making Choices,† that there are three kinds of choices people have to make in their lives. He coined the term â€Å"fundamental choice,† which means the choice regarding a person’s â€Å"state of being† and â€Å"basic life orientation† (n. pag.). Most events published in literature exemplify the role of decision-making in one’s destiny; as simple as choosing what road to take may have larger effects in the future. The four selected works of literature are bound together through unity of theme: choice. The texts might be morbid, fran k, or ironic; the choices presented in the selected texts didactically address the impact of choice in one’s life. â€Å"The Lottery,† upon its first publication in the magazine called â€Å"The New Yorker,† aroused controversy with its ironic representation of society’s violence. The setting which typifies an ordinary village filled with realistic characters contrasted with the real agenda of their celebration mentioned in the story. With Jackson’s description of the character’s habits and the way they treat each other, it is almost unpredictable that the lottery the story is referring shades the setting with an unusual accepted darkness the

Poverty and Pollution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Poverty and Pollution - Essay Example Industries in developing countries also do not have the technology to combat environmental pollution which is why they are suffering the most because of environmental pollution. In this paper, the issue of environmental pollution will be discussed and the role of developing and developed countries will be discussed. Moreover, the discussion will be made on ethical implications of polluting in a third world country. Also, a uniform global plan for pollution control will be proposed. The ethical implications of polluting in a Third World country are severe, to say the least. Businesses cannot make life miserable for people of third world countries because everyone has a right to live his or her life in a healthy environment. There cannot be any ethical justification of businesses polluting in Third World countries. When businesses pollute the land, air, and waters of developing countries, they hurt and endanger the lives of the people who live there, and this cannot be justified. It is also not ethical for businesses to damage the natural resources of third world countries in the name of economic progress. Even if businesses that are polluting in developing countries are actually creating jobs and contributing to the economy, their actions are not ethically justified because their practices will make life difficult for future generations. The argument that businesses in the Third World provide employment to otherwise unemployed people of the country is not valid because the same businesses are making the environment worse for the future generations. It is important to take into account the good of both the present and future generations, and in this regard practices of businesses that are polluting in the Third World countries are unethical.

Acquisition or Merger Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Acquisition or Merger - Essay Example Sony and Sony Ericsson entered into a merger where Sony acquired stake of the Ericsson. The merger would see the two companies combine forces in technology in order to be competitive in the telecommunication sector (Schemerhorn 218). The Sony revolution began in 1946 after the establishment of the Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation in Nihonbashi in Tokyo. To embark on research and invention of telecommunication devices, 190,000 yen was set aside as the starting capital. It was during this period that two devices were invented, Magnetic tape and first tape recorder. This showed a new beginning for the company, and it was after that it was branded the name Sony Corporation. After this advancement, the company afterwards invented the first portable television which led to the establishment of Sony Corporation of America in the United States (Schemerhorn 18).   A great improvement occurred for Sony over the decades, and numerous inventions were made among them being the invention of the Triton color television system which saw it get the initial Emmy award. In attendance, invention of the world’s original compact disc player as well as the Columbia pictures entertainment which was then renamed as Sony Pictures Entertainment in the year 1991. The company remained strong and prosperous following the wise strategies of management that was utilized. Sony worked together with Google to achieve its business goals in the sale of the cellular phone which saw Sony achieve affluent merchandising. Moreover, Sony was able to expand its area of connectivity. Both companies were to benefit from the partnership. Many would have thought that maybe the company was getting weak, but the Chairman of the company argued that the partnership was to help Sony achieve its market objectives. From then henceforth, Sony realized great market from all over the globe making it a strong independent company before merging with Sony Ericsson

Water (sustainable development ) Research Paper

Water (sustainable development ) - Research Paper Example elopment, but also sets up dangerous environmental and global consequences with climate change today threatening to undermine or roll back decades of development progress. Sustainable development is an action plan that promotes sustainability in those activities that use earth resources or capital. Sustainable development is a principle of sustaining these finite resources that are necessary to provide for the needs of future generations living on earth. The following is a research paper concentrating mainly on sustainable development with the particular topic of water. It analyses how the important factor of water is necessary for human existence and its relation to sustainable development. Sustainable water development comes from the understanding and the recognition that growth must be both inclusive and environmentally sound in reducing poverty (Elliott, 2012). It must share the prosperity of today’s population and in continuing to meet the needs of future generations. It calls for the efficient use of the available water resources which is carefully planned in order to deliver intermediate and long-term benefits for the planet, people and the need for prosperity. The three pillars of water sustainable development is economic growth, social inclusion and environmental stewardship. All these three pillars must be carried across all sectors of development, in cities facing rapid urbanization, therefore, high water usage in agriculture. The need for sustainable water development is made with certain goals in mind. These goals have the purpose of protecting the precious resource that is essential for human existence. Such goals include: Improving the quality of w ater in terms of drinking water as well as the water that supports aquatic ecosystems that are critical to the health and wellbeing for human and the environment. Secondly, improving water availability is a necessary and important aspect in economic activities. Thirdly, recognising that water is

Love, Sex, and Lies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Love, Sex, and Lies - Essay Example However his selfish thrive towards the riches and the comfort gets him arrested and finally his tragic end. The second movie, An Affair to Remember narrates the story of Nickie Ferrant (played by Cary Grant) and Terry McKay (Deborah Kerr) who fall in love on a ship despite their individual engagements. It is a remake of the 1939’s movie Love Affair by McCarey. The movie was remade more than once. The story is about the union of the lovers despite Terry becoming disabled from an accident. Love, sex and lies play their role in both the movies and help in giving them a shape. In the melodramatic film A Place in the Sun, romance has a strong place especially while depicting the relationship between George and Angela. Initially he dates Al (Shelley Winters), a poor girl who works at the factory of his uncle, against the norms of the company. She is mesmerized by George and being inexperienced, falls in love with him. It is hard to determine who George actually loves because he is more drawn to the light promised by the wealth and luxury he traces in the life of his uncle and the hope of which he finds in his life with Angela, a socialite whom he meets during his outing with Al. However despite his actual intentions, some of the most intense scenes are shot between Angela and George. In one of the cases George says: â€Å"I love you. Ive loved you since the first moment I saw you. I guess maybe Ive even loved you before I saw you†. However it is Al who has fallen in love with George and when she gets pregnant forces him to marry her. Despite his sugg estion for abortion she is poised on her decision and threatens to reveal everything if he does not marry her. It is difficult to gauge whose love is for real because while one runs after money the other is even ready to inflict harm on her lover if he betrays. Angela is perhaps the one who loves George truly and manages to convince her father about their marriage. As the movie unravels one

Playing Dual Roles in Organizations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Playing Dual Roles in Organizations - Essay Example These people were voted on by a review committee and part of the determining factor was that these people were not meeting the standards and objectives that Enron created. Those who did meet the standards often received millions of dollars in bonuses. Therefore, this particular system made it so that employees were rewarded for doing what Enron wanted and punished for when they didn’t. This fostered a dangerous mindset, especially since the company was unethical. Following groups norms is similar to peer pressure in that people are persuaded to do something or behave in a certain way solely because everyone else is doing or behaving in the exact same manner. In this particular documentary, traders followed group norms by being very ruthless. It was noted that due to the competitive atmosphere, people would slit each other’s throats or stomp on each other’s throats in order to get to the top. Additionally, one trader said that he did not ask questions about the unethical practices because nobody else was. Both examples illustrate an overall acceptance of values and standards due to the fact that â€Å"everyone was doing it† or was commonplace behavior. Andrew Fastow who was the CFO of Enron was assigned the role of being in charge of the money and financial aspects of Enron. The movie discusses how Fastow essentially lied to investors by convincing them to put money into the company without really receiving anything of actual value in return. He kept Enron afloat by creating a variety of bogus companies and having investors such as banks place money on them. Additionally, he skimmed money off the top of these accounts to the tune of $45 million. Fastow’s role as CFO gave him access to a lot of money and power. It appears that he was set up as a fall guy in a way since a lot of the crime had to do with the accounting aspect of the business which Fastow was largely in charge of. It can either be said that the role of CFO corrupted Fastow and he perpetrated fraud as a means of fulfilling his greed.

Hildren at play Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Hildren at play - Essay Example The paper outlines all the playground's changes and gives also a short survey consisting of six questions was given to twenty one children to know their attitudes towards their school playgrounds. Rules and restrictions such as no running or jumping off playground equipments, fighting, climbing, playing ball games near school buildings and so on, are induced to reduce the like hood of accidents and injury. Schools offering more sanitized play environments are of latest trend. According to Titman ‘manufactured provisions which claim to substitute for children’s loss to free access to the external environment has resulted in the creation of places which too often provide little more than amusement and diversion’. School grounds having been designed to reduce the likeliness of injuries/accidents has shown to be less stimulative in terms of what it offers to children and also failed to provide the environmental experience. In view of safety measures most of the school s have principally removed movable play equipments such as swings, see-saws, roundabouts which do not conform to the safety, standards and/or they have shown to be the cause of accidents and injury. Black Hill Primary School viewed from outside seems to have a small play ground raising the curiosity to see if the children’s thoughts mirrored mine. The school has ample equipments, with a playground quiet small enough for track events and ball games which has a basket ball/tennis/netball court, also a sand pit, slides, swings, monkey bars, ladders, bridges and a recently installed flying fox.

Impact of Culture on the performance of the virtual groups Essay

Impact of Culture on the performance of the virtual groups - Essay Example It is implied, that the culture of virtual groups is defined by the level of their education, as the tests will be made among students through the period of two semesters. It is necessary to consider the impact of culture through each of the four decision-outcomes criteria separately, making common conclusion. For the aims of the work it will be necessary to describe the AST in details, making special references to its potential connection with the issue of cultural impact, it will be necessary to define the context in which the notion of culture will be considered as well as distinguish the exact methodology and analysis methods. The work will be useful for the students studying in the sphere of computer sciences. The present research represents high relevance as the issues of culture in various aspects of human life acquire new meaning when applying them to the new technologies.

Third Grade Classrooms and Foldables Essay Example for Free

Third Grade Classrooms and Foldables Essay Good educators, especially in the lower levels of education, are always looking for effective ways to improve students’ learning and interest in subjects that may not be as appealing. Any activity that promotes reading and encourages critical thinking is especially valued by teachers (Angus, 1993). One of the key developments promoted by Zike is the use of Foldables in the classroom (2007). These are three-dimensional hands-on manipulative/graphic organizers. Foldables can quickly organize, display and arrange data making it easier for students to grasp concepts, theories, processes, facts, and ideas, or to sequence events as outlined in the content standards. They can result in student-made study guides that are compiled as students listen for main ideas, read for main ideas, or conduct research (Zike, 2007). This study examined the use of Foldables to promote the reading and retention of social studies information with third grade students and to enhance their attitude toward social studies (Zike, 2007). It was hypothesized that Foldables do have a positive influence on learning in the classroom, more so than using the standard lecture/worksheet technique. Specifically, comparisons on cognitive and affective assessment measures were made between those taught using Foldables and those taught using lecture with worksheets. The Experiments This study took place in an elementary school in a rural community in East Tennessee. Manufacturing and retail are the major area employers and residents are in the low to middle income level. One out of 11 elementary schools in the county was selected for this study, based on convenience (Casteel, 2006). The K-5 school where the study took place had 625 students enrolled, with over 95% being white students. Of those 625 students, 63% receiving free or reduced lunch, which gives an idea about the income status of the family (Casteel, 2006). Out of five third grade classrooms, three were randomly selected to participate in the study. The first classroom was referred to Classroom A, while the second one was referred to as Classroom B. According to Casteel’s findings, students from the third classroom were randomly divided in half with half the students joining Classroom A and half joining Classroom B for this study (2006). The resulting gender distribution for Classroom A was 15 male and 14 female, while for Classroom B it was 16 male and 11 female. A control group experimental design was used in this study. In the first two week period of instruction on history timelines, Classroom A (n=29) served as the control group while Classroom B (n=27) served as the treatment group (independent variable). In the second two week period of instruction on maps, Classroom B became the control group while Classroom A served as the treatment group. The treatment groups were taught the subject through the use of Foldables, while the control groups were taught the subject using lecture with worksheets (Casteel, 2006). At the beginning of the unit, a pretest (dependent variable) toward social studies was administered to each student, along with a cognitive measure of knowledge on history timelines. At the end of the unit, the measure toward social studies was again given, along with the knowledge on history timelines (Casteel, 2006). These were the posttest measures. The treatment and control groups were then switched and another measure of knowledge on maps was given as a pretest to each group. The posttest measure from the first instructional time period served as the pretest for the second instructional time period. At the end of the second instructional unit on maps, the measure of social studies was again administered along with the measure of knowledge on maps (Casteel, 2006). Results and Conclusions Initially the pretest scores of the two groups were compared to ensure that they had equivalent attitudes toward social studies, which they were. The changes in scores from pretest to posttest for each group (Lecture/Worksheet and Foldables) were then compared using a paired samples t-test. Casteel researched that the Lecture/Worksheet group had a . 69 point mean gain from pretest to posttest, which was not statistically significant, while the Foldables group had a 2. 67 point mean gain from pretest to posttest, which was statistically significant (2006). This study was designed to compare the effectiveness of two teaching methods (Lecture/Worksheet and Foldables). The Lecture/Worksheet and Foldables groups had equivalent pretest scores, meaning they were equivalent in attitudes toward social studies at the beginning of the units. Only those taught with Foldables had a significant increase from pretest to posttest on affective scores (Casteel, 2006). The experimental data indicated that Foldables are a promising alternative to the traditional method of Lecture/Worksheet. Using Foldables significantly improved students attitudes toward the material (Zike, 2007). Additionally, teachers who participated in the study commented about the improvement in attitudes when using the Foldables. Furthermore, several teachers indicated that students were applying the Foldables across the curriculum, for example, using them to learn fractions as a part of a math unit. One teacher commented that when using Foldables there were fewer discipline problems since the students remained more engaged with the material (Zike, 2007). This preliminary research indicated that an improvement in attitude is possible through the use of the Foldable technique.

Why Should We Teach Shakespeare English Language Essay

Why Should We Teach Shakespeare English Language Essay The writings of Shakespeare play an important part of the heritage of the English literature which sends us the moral obligation to teach Shakespeare. Constructed by critical approach, the narrow, elitist hierarchy of texts written by Shakespeare, which was considered as the apex as a touchstone of excellence to protest to match inferior productions, are now a remote view, quite different from the great variety and richness of human experience in the arts. However, personal sense of works should be encouraged to communicate with many people by sharing celebration, accessing to tradition of communal dramatic experience, not as the key to ivory tower. Language of Shakespeare contains not only specific historical and cultural context, but also introduces all kinds of linguistic development by widening the way of seeing and thinking. Besides, our language, concept, and perception can be enriched by coping with his language. As a teaching aid, Shakespeares innovative use of vocabulary helps show children how to use the language they are born with better than a bland textbook, even when used without this aim in mind. Children should be encouraged to access to Shakespeare, and since parents seem to be too lazy to read to their children any more, it must be the place of school to offer this education. His dramatic and lyric poetry speaks powerfully and directly to the belief of the essential poetry in education. The idea that good poetry is deep, rich, obscure, and complex is sometimes promoted by textual analysis. Readers of Shakespeares poetry will find depth in simplicity, wisdom, or tragic mode. Dr. Johnson (1765) considers Shakespeare as a poet of Nature who filled his plays with practical axioms and domestic wisdom by his universal sympathies. Shakespeare treated his characters in action a depth and various insights that can sharpen our self-knowledge and knowledge of human condition which bring us context to test out our potential for good or ill in private reflection when discussing with others. In the field of drama and theatre, scripts of Shakespeares plays provide us full range of practical activity, workshop improvisation and mime which is based on different moments or themes to full-scale public performance. Students from primary school onwards can experience through the formal and narrative structures, as well as the language of plays and poetry of Shakespeare. From this, deeper understanding his texts can be raised higher to each level. The texts in Shakespeares works are open to explore the way in which apparently settled notions of kingship, order, harmony, nobility, and social class and gender are threatened by unresolved forces. Difficulties and challenges in teaching Shakespeare are the opportunities. Shakespeare is the cultural treasure not only of England but also the world. An education in England cannot ignore the vast cultural wealth of our country. For too long England have lost pride in its national icons and allowed nationalists to reclaim them as their own. Keeping control of the powerful icons such as Shakespeare is a tool for integration. Shakespeare has enlightened the lives of the people of this country for 500 years, and for good reason. His poetry and drama represent the pinnacle of the English language, and influences the way we speak today. It is a beautiful body of work, ranging from comedy to tragedy, murder to hatred, treating difficult subjects brilliantly. If we are to remain proud of the history of this country, we cannot ignore the contribution made by this one man to our culture, and wider European culture. Shakespeare made his name here, but has been read by an audience far beyond the reaches of this sceptred isle (Shakespeare: Richard II, 2.i). Shakespeare is also the cultural integration. Many people are worried about an upcoming generation of immigrants that do not identify themselves as British, while living in Britain and paying taxes to the British government. Culture is a key tool in integration; if you can share a cultural identity, you can share other values and bring the wider community together. Teaching Shakespeare, a bastion of British culture, in schools to this end is far better than forcing citizenship ceremonies and oaths of allegiance on children. It is not forceful, but creates a sense that they are part of a country with a long and proud history, willing to integrate new communities into its growth. Shakespeare was way ahead of his time. Many of his characters and situations are modern day and relate to us. Also, his plays and poetry show us things about ourselves that other pieces of literature often cant. The mastermind himself has invented a whole new phase of the English language. To this date, we all use words which directly or indirectly have their origins in Shakespeares works. Also, many movies are being made on his works which has further generated an interest in the Bard. They are even applicable to todays 21st century. There are still Macbeths, Othello, Julius Caesars and others in the society. Its just that their lifestyle has become more advanced, more tech-savvy and dressed differently. Its just that their lifestyle has become more advanced, more tech-savvy and dressed differently. Shakespeare is a pro at deciphering the human emotions and the working of the mind. One can also see his works from a psychological point of view and identify with some of the characters . It might also give an insight to the students who are learning about it and give a better view of the real world as opposed to seeing the world through rose-tinted glasses. II. Recent Shakespeare teaching in schools Generally, teaching and learning in schools have been transformed radically during the last twenty-five years. Learning process is now emphasized within different contexts, oral, as well as valuable written outcomes, active modes of learning, such as: role-play, group discussion, and independent learning). The development of media studies encourages extending the range of linguistic and visual experiences. Literature, in this stream, is no longer perceived as the central study in English, but one of a range of possibilities. Not only competing for time with other literature, Shakespeare also fights with the role of English as a support subject across the curriculum. Shakespeare studies in schools have got many fruitful developments, in which there are two significant ones: the growth of practical drama work through workshop and Theatre-in-Education, and plain text examinations. The pioneers of the first fruit are Henry Caldwell Cook (1917) and Beacock (1943) who established the mummery in Perse School, Cambridge, and were seminal influences on teaching through drama. It was not until in the late 1960s when the growth of educational drama introduced Shakespeare into the teaching in state schools with possible way of grouping students into 4 or 5 member resident companies who are responsible a certain part given by teacher to discuss and perform before evaluation of the whole class. Plain text examinations are given particularly to O level by providing the text in the examination room shifting students to respond by using their own words. III. Teaching Shakespeare in England With many young people, Shakespeare play is just a story with fixed values to be learned, rather than the dramatically dynamic, emotionally shifting and unstable play text which it really is. There are still many classes where students sit at their desks experience by reading through a Shakespeare play. Nothing startling, but a few right ingredients were there with enthusiastic teaching, playing the text, and seeing a performance. Many people leaving school along with the thinking of the most unbelievable and unutterable rubbish to ever hear about Shakespeares plays. Ted Wragg, one of the most well-respected and well-loved educationalists of Britain agreed that there was nothing but doing Shakespeare, rather than reading if someone wants to let children access the power of Shakespeares words. 1. Pre-national Curriculum Beginning of the twentieth century sees the secondary education becoming compulsory and English taking its prestige value from the Classics. Along this, attitudes to Shakespeare were very much influenced by nationalist pride. William Shakespeare, whose timeless characters and portrayed universal values in his plays define our humanity, was reversed as the greatest poet of all time. Shakespeare, in the post enlightenment age when art was considered as the human surrogate for religion (Peter Widdowson, 1981), was like the apex of high culture which was the target for Victorian belief of a better person if exposing to it. Richard Adams (1985), despite decrying the static of Shakespeare, comments that most students still respect Shakespeare although they get bored to tears by reading incomprehensive words if his plays. In the first half of twentieth century, Shakespeares plays were read around class only, which was the main topic for the influential critics such as: AC Bradleys character -based criticism, LC Knights journal Scrunity, and critics like Tillyard, Wilson Knight and Leavis whose concepts of an ordered Elizabethan world helped transmit clear cultural values in Shakespeares plays to us. This tradition of criticism the liberal humanist took the plays in the view of literature rather than drama and influenced a long life in secondary schools. However, on the other side, different views on seeing the plays as the performance texts also existed. Founded in 1906, The English Association suggested in its first pamphlet publications The Teaching of Shakespeare in Schools how to study Shakespeares plays: It is desirable that all the Shakespeare chosen for study should be read aloud in class. The living voice will often give a clue to the meaning, and reading aloud is the only way of ensuring knowledge of the metre. In a class of beginners the teacher must take a liberal share of the reading, but the pupils should be brought into play. They can be cast for some of the parts; the forum scene in Julius Caesar comes one step nearer the dramatic if the teacher is Anthony and the other parts are distributed and the class transformed into a Roman mob shouting for the will. Many writers on Shakespeare education agreed that it was so dangerous for opening textbooks before students in classrooms but forgetting what drama really meant. This pamphlet also recommended good practice by acting out scenes and seeing performance of the play occasionally. Henry Caldwell Cook (1917) strongly encouraged the case for a theatrical approach to the study of Shakespeare. Under the influence of the liberal humanist tradition in teaching, the trend for drama-based teaching of texts was still calling. A.K Hudson (1954) confirmed the important role of active approaches to teaching Shakespeare in his book Shakespeare and the Classroom for The Society for Teachers of English. He wrote in the introduction of this book: The unsuccessful methods [of teaching Shakespeare] normally display two features: they are non-dramatic and they reflect a tendency to regard school children as textual scholars in embryo. The present book recognises frankly the difficulties which the modern pupil finds in dealing with Shakespeare. It has been written in the belief that the plays can be made intelligible and interesting only if the teaching remains stage-centred. The writer suggests practical advice and ideas on how to work with the plays with 11-18 years old. He believes in the benefits from his ways to students when learning Shakespeare. Government, in this time, also had innovative opinions on teaching Shakespeare, which is illustrated by its document named The Newbolt Report (entitled The Teaching English in England) published in 1921. The report, besides remaining the traditional view of regarding Shakespeare as the greatest English writer, focused on the need for English to be enjoyable and encouraged the use of drama for improving the imagination and empathy. School curriculum in this time is the secret garden where schools decide themselves on how much and what about Shakespeare to teach. Frank Whitehead (1966) and J.W. Patrick Creber (1965) introduced a more pragmatic view on Shakespeare in their two books influential in the teaching of English in the mid 1960s. Despite keeping the point of view of Shakespeare as greatest English wri ter, they see that Shakespeare was really difficult for the majority of students, and wonder the suitability of the study of Shakespeare for young teenagers. Jan Kott (1965) concludes that the attitudes to Shakespeare academic and theatrical world were undergone the revolution. Moreover, universities and theatres ignored the traditional, reverential view of Shakespeares plays. 2. The 1980s In the mid 1980s, independent schools and higher ability streams were the province of Shakespeare studies which, despite of having lost favor with general rank and files of teachers in England, became very much the norm with its performance consciousness. Neil King (1985) suggested that Shakespeare should not be taught below Year 9 because the language is too high and difficult to attempt. He chose Macbeth and Henry V instead of the full of violence and hatred in Romeo and Juliet to deal with thirteen-year-old students. John F Andrews writes in the Teaching Shakespeare a special edition produced by American Shakespeare Quarterly in 1984: A decade ago performance-oriented pedagogy was relatively unfamiliar among Shakespeareans and was anything but universally accepted as the wave of the future. Now it is difficult to find a dissenting voice: virtually everybody acknowledges the need to approach Shakespeares plays as dramatic rather than literary works. The only real question seems to be just how to put the new consensus into practice. Also in this edition, Kenneth Muir, in his essay Teaching Shakespeare: the wrong way or the right, affirms that the most effective and only legitimate way to study Shakespeares plays in schools is to turn the lessons into a rehearsal. Late 1980s and early 1990s sees the clash of view over the position of Shakespeare in education between the left wing cultural materialist academics and the right wing guardians of cultural heritage. 1980s was the period of critical theories which opened up academic Shakespeare study. The Feminist and Cultural Materialist got the most influential on Shakespeare teaching. Bardolatry, which had built up around Shakespeare at seemed to be out of time and a repository of universal truth, was strongly attacked by Cultural Materialism. In 1980s, context to the plays in textbooks dealing with Shakespeare were increasingly adapted. Besides, educationalists who were already working with such ideas were provided a theoretical underpinning by the academics. Opposite the awareness of cultural, historical and other contextual influences which is embedded as part of examination requirements along with the awareness of literary heritage of these days, summer 1993 came what the Observer called The Battle of the Bard which saw John Major, at his Party Conference, railed against 500 academics who had written a letter protesting against the Governments policies on literature teaching in which the introduction of Shakespeare was compulsory at Key Stage 3. While the academics view of the policies was like an ill-thought-through elitist imposition of a death white man, it was, with the party members, the chance for moral fibre of all right-minded inhabitants of this sceptred isle to be strengthened. Meanwhile, teachers shrugged and tried to get on with their daily teaching tasks. Luckily, in the stream of this chaos, Dr Rex Gibson, the English greatest Shakespearean educationalist, was building an oasis of sense for some teachers with quiet achieving great success of his invaluable research in project Shakespeare in schools started in 1986. Gibsons team, working from the Cambridge Institute of Education, produced a termly the newsletter named Shakespeare and Schools which is as a support for the teaching of Shakespeare, containing quotes, articles, information, and writings by teachers on their direct experiences with Shakespeare in Primary and Secondary schools. Gibson introduced his fruitful result by using active and flexible approaches to the plays to involve every student of any age to appreciate Shakespeare: In total, our research reveals an encouraging picture. Teachers increasingly report success as they employ a variety of methods, at the heart of which is social collaborative, imaginative, re-creative activities. Such methods deepen and enhance students informed personal responses. First appeared in 1991, Gibsons school editions of plays provides a wealth of practical ideas facing with each page of text. They soon became popular in every English stock-cupboard and the compulsory study of Shakespeare in Key Stage 3. Moreover, his book, Teaching Shakespeare (1998) became the favorite of many new and experienced teachers alike. In the early 1990s, Royal Society of Arts (RSA) project also conveyed the same spirit of how to make Shakespeare accessible in the origin to all age groups from 5 upwards by using well prepared, exciting, and enjoyable teaching and learning approaches. The project, in the echo of Gibsons work, tried to counter the idea of Shakespeare as a bogeyman whose works are so difficult, irrelevant, and inaccessible. RSA introduced a more practical, fun approach to replace the scholarly one, which allows teachers and students to develop skills, knowledge and sharing ideas. In the same purpose, Shakespeare and Schools project, the work of Royal Shakesp eare Company (RSC), National Theatre, and Globe education departments, involved enormously the development of teaching and learning Shakespeare with new approaches. 3. The National Curriculum From 1976, the quality of state education and a great deal of discussion about the curriculum were questioned but most ideas were still theoretical and generalized. Despite broadly mentioned in Curriculum Matter 1, a document of Department of Education and Science, published in 1984, there was still unclear way of how much, which work(s) of Shakespeare, which age of students to teach Shakespeare. Having initiated plans for National Curriculum (NC) of predecessor, Keith Joseph, Kenneth Baker, as Secretary of State for Education in May 1986, was determined to change and create specific requirements for all school children. He got his goal and opened the door of opportunity in 1987 by tying up all the details for NC. He clearly believed that Shakespeare should be a compulsory author to study for having cultural and intellectual cachet. Nigel Lawson, in an interview with The Guardian, in September 1983, summed that Shakespeare was a Tory without any doubt. Shakespeare, in the view of Tor ies, is as the bastion of British culture and values, a stable enduring symbol of Englishness in a shifting world. In September 1992, the Conservative view was stated clearly by John Patten, then Education Secretary: It is essential that pupils are encouraged to develop an understanding and appreciation of our countrys literary heritage. Studying the works of Shakespeare is central to that development. That is why the study of Shakespeare is an explicit requirement of the National Curriculum. This point of view alienated many teachers and academics who did not support the compulsory Shakespeare study. They still questioned the values about class and women in the writings of this white man, and denied students access to a man who is generally regarded as the worlds greatest playwright but simply reverse snobbery. From autumn 1989, the National Curriculum was introduced progressively. It begins with unspecific state that pupils should learn some of Shakespeares works. Besides, a new battle of the Bard began in September 1990 when SATs, a kind of Scholastic Assessment Test, were first embarked to Year 7 students on the English NC program. The Cox Report, English for Ages 5-16, in 1989, mentioned the implication of drama-based methods for teaching Shakespeare: In particular, every pupil should be given at least some experience of the plays or poetry of Shakespeare. Whether this is through the study, viewing or performance of whole plays or of selected poems or scenes should be entirely at the discretion of the teacher. The report continued on the comment of Gibsons Shakespeare and Schools project that secondary students received wide range of abilities to find Shakespeare meaningful, accessible and enjoyable from the project which also replaced traditional methods of reading desk-bound students by exciting, enjoyable approaches. The place of Shakespeare in NC is also validated in this report: Many teachers believe that Shakespeares work conveys universal values, and that his language expresses rich and subtle meanings beyond that of any other English writer. Other teachers point out that evaluations of Shakespeare have varied from one historical period to the next and they argue that pupils should be encouraged to think critically about his status in the canon. But almost everyone agrees that his work should be represented in a National Curriculum. Shakespeares plays are so rich that in every age they can produce fresh meanings and even those who deny his universality agree on his cultural importance. In 1995, as the information in the Dearing Report, a new slimmed-down version of NC was given to schools, which stated that at least two Shakespeare plays should be taught during the Key Stage 3 and 4. 4. The SATs Early 1990s, Shakespeare was added on Paper 2 of the Key Stage 3 SATs examinations, which went along with the fact that all Year 9 students had to study 3 plays of Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet, Julius Caesar, and A Midsummers Night Dream. The questions in exam were traditionally literary, based on the set scenes of the plays. Students were required to answers the questions as well as writing their response in 1 hour 15 minutes. Both reading and writing skills were required. However, the questions were still in the form that regards an audience member as a reader rather than a witness at a place. For example, the question relating to Act 1 Scene 3 of Julius Caesar: At this point in the play do you support the conspirators? Or the question relating to Act 1 Scene 5 of Romeo and Juliet: How are moods of excitement, romance and danger created during the scene? How do they affect the audiences feelings about Romeo and Juliet at this point in the play? A better question that allows students to give more interpretive response is the one relating to Act 3 Scene 1 of A Midsummers Night Dream: If you were directing the scene, what would you tell the actors to help them bring out the comedy? However, this paper was boycotted by the majority of schools in the trend of boycott the English Key Stage 3 SATs because teachers and students felt that the paper was so quick to be adequately prepared. In 1995, the first year of national tests for all Year 9 students, SATs were deigned to be as inoffensive although the format was the same. The questions tried to put students into characters behavior in the set scene or characters place, and then asked students to writes a letter or diary as that character. In the next years, most questions were largely character-based. 2003 sees another battle when the ideas of Estelle Morris vetoing a QCA (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority) recommendation of reducing the test to 45 minutes and checking reading skill only. The set plays were Twelfth Night, Macbeth and Henry V, each of which was put in a separate paper within two questions to be answered in 1 hour and 15 minutes. This new version also got so many complaints the QCA had to do a survey of teachers on how to change the paper into the best way. Because of having not enough time to change, 2004 version got the same format of paper and the problems were compounded further. The negative stress factor caused by SATs was highlighted in the Report on KS3 English Review of Service Delivery failure 2003-2004 to QCA Board. 30/09/04 that the test results of school-level key stage 3 had significant impact on school with the potential affect on teachers careers. 2005s Paper 2 was also considered as a disaster. Shakespeare in 2005, 2006 was assessed by student s who would answer one question which possessed 18% of the total English papers. The question based on the set play and required 45 minutes to respond. Since 2009, following the public consultation, only two plays Romeo and Juliet, and The Tempest have been chosen as the set texts for SATs. For Key Stage 3, the NAA suggests four plays Romeo and Juliet, As You Like It, A Midsummers Night Dream, and Julius Caesar should be on a rolling program of plays. 5. Key Stage 4 Exams In 1960s and 1970s, Shakespeare was the unique compulsory author in the old O-Level English Literature syllabus which required the study of three texts: A Shakespeare play, a novel and some poetry. It was free for the boards to choose texts from any period, although in practice, the texts were in the trend of drawing from Great Tradition. Differently, 1980s came the boards withdrawing away from the Great Tradition and compulsory Shakespeare. O-Level texts no longer insert plays or poetry. Therefore, students could escape from plays or poetry all together, and left school without having studied Shakespeare at all. The three genres: poetry, prose and drama were recovered by the introduction of GCSE supplanting the O-Level and CSE syllabuses for first examination in 1988, but the study of Shakespeare was placed in the discretion of the teacher. Some schools chose coursework with 100% mark or took chance to do some interesting assignments on Shakespeare. However, when adding both Shakespeare and a modern text, for example Forsyths Gregorys Girl, while most teachers were trying to convey the lessons in mixed-ability groups, many opted not to bother Shakespeare. In 1994, Shakespeare returned the only compulsory author on the Literature syllabuses when the Key Stage 4 program of study which was set out in the 1991 National Curriculum, came into force. In 1995, the exam boards required the texts be compared and contrasted, and be shown social and historical contexts, which became the hints for teachers to set discussions the relevance between texts social and historical contexts and today ones. Since 1999, GCSE English Language has required the study of a Shakespeare play to meet the requirement of NC that a play should be studied at Key Stage 4. Regardless the ability, for the first time, all students had to study a Shakespeare play for their important 16+ exam in English. Shakespeares works are still the industry standard of literature, teaching Shakespeare in England has been innovative to update and create new approaches for a wider and deeper view on his social, historical contexts and humanity. Teachers and students play important keys to make Shakespeare lifelong.

The Benefits of Cooperative Learning for ELL Students

The Benefits of Cooperative Learning for ELL Students The first thing to consider is the fact that cooperative learning is beneficial to all students, regardless of their classification or primary language. In fact, activities where the teacher uses conceptual strategies that promote learning together or group investigation are statistically proven to be superior to instructional design focused on working alone or working in a competitive environment. Essentially, helping each other is better than competing or working alone. Three highly effective conceptual models have been determined to be those cooperative activities which can be labeled as learning together, academic controversy, or group investigation. Basically, if the cooperative learning technique you are using involves one of these three modes, then your lesson should be more effective than students working alone or in a competitive style (Johnson, D., Johnson R., Stanne, 2000). There are many examples of instructional strategies with a learning together style. Numbered Heads Together is one such activity; it is a strategy that promotes discussion, individual accountability, as well as group accountability. It is especially effective for reviewing and integrating subject matter (Numbered Heads Together, 2010). Academic controversy, another effective style of cooperative learning mentioned in the previous paragraph, is essentially informed and educated debate, with one important twist: the students argue both sides of the issue or contentious theory. One example of this type of cooperative learning strategy involves six steps: create the best case for a position on the controversy, present this best case, engage in open discussion, reverse perspectives, synthesize and come to consensus, and prepare a report (Academic Controversy, 2010). The last highly-effective type of cooperative learning noted above in the research is called group investigation. One school district website describes group investigation as an activity where à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦students collaborate to produce a group product for presentation à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [in] an open-ended investigationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦structured to promote higher-order thinking skills. (Regina Public Schools, 2003). This type of group activity is probably best known as the very popular WebQuest design where students surf the internet in a guided, but self-directed, group investigation into a topic which ultimately leads to a finalized presentation or product. (Dodge, 2007). There are many more types of cooperative learning possibilities and conceptual categories to consider than learning together, academic controversy, and group investigation, however the conceptual types mentioned above are noted to be especially easy to learn, easy to implement, and easy to maintain once put into use (Johnson et al., 2000). Not only are cooperative learning strategies effective for all learners, but they are especially effective for ELL students specifically. Language learners tend to pick up social language much faster than academic language. ELL students basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) are practiced in a meaningful context in a variety of social settings, but CALP is not normally practiced outside of the classroom. Rather, CALP is the language used in subject area content material; CALP is essential for success in school. While BICS will develop in as little as six months, CALP may take as long as seven years (Haynes, 1998). So we can see that the faster CALP is developed, the sooner our ELL students will succeed in content curricular areas. One way that cooperative learning helps CALP to be developed is through comprehensible input and comprehensible output. ELL students will often fail to understand a lecture, but if they are assisted by classmates it can be made more comprehensible to them. Comprehensive output means that the student has the opportunity to practice at whatever level of English fluency they have attained. CL helps to develop comprehensible input and comprehensible output in several ways. First, small groups make it possible for the teacher or group members to adapt the message to the ELL student. Second, feedback, correction, and checking of comprehension are easier in small groups and are non-judgmental. Also, ELL students have the opportunity to practice their oral language skills, get repetition, and peer assistance related to the current task at hand (Haynes, 1998). Another way that cooperative learning is helpful to ELL students is by lowering their anxiety level so that they feel more at ease and are able to comfortably focus on learning the language. Wang Qiangs work on cooperative learning (Qiang, 2007, as cited in Yang, 2008) shows us that speaking in small groups is natural, because in real life, this is how spontaneous communication occurs. If they speak in front of a large group of people it is usually a more formal situation where they have a prepared speech (Yang, 2009). Furthermore, according to Krashens Affective Filter hypothesis, anxiety is a negative factor in second language acquisition whereby the ELL student will retain less language under stress than in a relaxed state (Schutz, 2007). Since cooperative learning lowers the affective filter (Willis, 2007), it is logical that cooperative learning would make second language learning less threatening and therefore more effective. Consider this powerful quote about neuroimaging of t he anxious brain: In MRI scans of adolescents in states of affective, emotional anxiety, when the amygdala is metabolically hyperactive, the pathways that normally conduct information in and out of the amygdala show greatly reduced activity. Thus, new information is blocked from entering the memory banks (Toga Thompson, 2003, as stated in Willis, 2007). Two early studies done by Pica and Doughty in 1984 and 1985 (as stated in Liang, Mohan, and Early, 1998) compared the efficacy of teacher-fronted classes to small-group interactive classes. They found that in small groups students were able to practice more, receive more feedback, and produce more examples of the target language. This suggests that in small groups the ELL students have more opportunity to work on those specific curricular words, or academic language, that TESL instructors strive to develop. Pica and Doughtys study also found that in group work over 65% of students were engaged in negotiation for meaning versus 45% of the students in teacher-fronted classes. This statistic seems to suggest that ELL students will talk more freely and frequently in group settings about what unfamiliar language terms and structures mean. Thus, CALP is likely developed faster in CL groups than in teacher-fronted classes (Liang et al, 1998). Two interesting handbooks may help teachers improve their ability to foster CALP in the ELL classroom. One is the very popular Calla Handbook and the other is titled Building Academic Language, by Jeff Zweirs. The CALLA handbook: Implementing the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach, was written by Anna Uhl Chamot, and was presented in workshop format, by the author, in Wyoming in February of 2007. In her presentation on her popular book, Dr. Chamot stresses several key aspects of the CALLA approach. CALLA instruction is based on educational research and focuses on those language skills needed in school for academic success. Students are encouraged to value their prior knowledge and to relate it to new academic learning, a new culture, and a new language. Students are also tasked with learning to work cooperatively and socially, as well as internalizing learning strategies and applying them to new situations. Teachers are advised to use interesting topics and content which is linked to prior experiences and knowledge as well as presenting content through hands-on, investigative, or cooperative activities (Chamot Robbins, 2007). A book review of Building Academic Language: Essential Practices for Content Classrooms illuminates its value for building CALP in ELL education. This handbook is described as being very practical, full of strategies for the classroom, and focused on academic literacy. Important concepts in the book include using in-depth conversation as a scaffolding technique for building academic language, using metacognition to help students analyze classroom interactions, as well as the use of visual aids to help develop academic thought processes. The book stresses the need to think about the quality of student discourse, as well as the quantity, whereby the style of academic verbal interactions is guided by teaching processes, is modeled by the teacher, and ultimately leads to a deeper academic vocabulary and a deeper comprehension. (Huerta-Macias, 2007). In conclusion, this paper has reviewed and discussed how certain styles of cooperative learning are particularly valuable for all learners, including ELL students. Cooperative learning research and scholarly writings have been reviewed which demonstrate further that CL facilitates second language acquisition, in particular, because it lowers anxiety, makes input and output more comprehensible, and leads to more frequent use of the target language being studied. Finally, two respected TESL handbooks were reviewed for their merits in helping ELL teachers develop CALP.

Comapring Gardners Model to the Theory of John Dewey Essay -- Teachin

Philosophers are part of history, caught in its movement; creators perhaps in some measure of its future, but also assuredly creatures of its past.-John Dewey American philosopher, social commentator, idealist, educator, and democratic theorist, John Dewey has had a profound impact on America's educational system. Proponent of change and advocate of "hands-on" learning and interactive classrooms, Dewey accomplished a great deal in his long life, (interestingly enough, he is the only major philosopher to live beyond his ninetieth year). He is the one professional philosopher of our age whose ideas have touched the common man through institutional changes in education and social action. Born on October 20, 1859, in Burlington Vermont, John Dewey was born into a small-town middle class family. His father was a reasonably successful town grocer and tobacconist, while his mother, almost twenty years younger and "better-born", had come from a prominent Vermont family. Dewey remembered his mother as a woman of great piety, strict with her sons, and frequently questioning their "rightness with Jesus". Until he was almost thirty years old, the greater part of Dewey's intellectual life was concerned with mediating between the core of evangelicalism that his mother had given him and life as men live it, particularly the intellectual life of the later nineteenth century. Mrs. Dewey prized the principles of work, prayer, benevolence, maternity, and ambitious goals for her family. The disappointment of her marriage seems to have led her to seek an exaggerated sense of self-reliance. Due to her strong convictions, the home life of her three sons was very demanding. The teachings of his mother left Dewey with the notion that the world... ...ample is the characteristic of egoism among creative individuals. This also seems obvious, especially when dealing with the individuals he has chosen, as they are all famous and recognized worldwide for their achievements. On the whole I do not agree with Gardner's model, and I believe that it is somehow wrong to stereotype and dissect people to the extent that he has. But hey, maybe that's why I'm not an psychology or phyciatry major. Works Cited 1. Hook, Sidney. John Dewey: Philosopher of Science and Freedom. 1950. Dial Press. New York 2. Campbell, James. Understanding John Dewey. 1995. Open Court. Chicago, Illinois 3. Johnson, A.H. The Wit and Wisdom of John Dewey. 1949. The Beacon Press. Boston. 4. http://www.albany.edu/~dkw42/s2-dewey-progr.html 5. http://education.ucdavis.edu/ACADEMIC/EDU120/dewey1.html 6. http://www.fred.net/tzaka/demointr.html

Averys Article on Global Warming :: Environmental Global Climate Change

As a reader the first thing I noticed about this piece is that it is an extract from The Guardian newspaper. This shows that this article is meant for intelligent and a more intellectual readership. Avery is trying to convince the reader that Global Warming is a good thing which we can benefit from. He is portraying his point of view by using his own assertions. He refers to the increase in global temperature in the next century as predicted by scientists. This method is used effectively by the author to help convince the reader to support his opinion. Avery uses a method which almost predicts the future, when in fact it is an educated guess to help support his opinion. An example of this is, "We can expect a peak population of approximately 8.5 billion in the year 2035." This is used effectively to stop the author from making a rash comment which may be proven wrong. This also shows that the author has conducted some research. He also rebuttals other scientific views. An example of this is, "That may sound like a lot, but it isn't." He uses this method lucratively. Avery says, " none of them expects to see the planet much warmer in the foreseeable future". This is a very widespread comment which is inaccurate, because Avery would have had to ask every scientist and each one will have had to have agreed. Avery also uses the history of the subject matter to help prove his point. Here is an example of this, "Between 900AD and 1300 the earth warmed by some 4-7 degrees." This is very effective as it shows the author has conducted some research and used it successfully. Avery uses many facts in his piece for example, " The world dropped into The Little Ice Age." This also shows that the author has used research to help his argument. Avery uses a clear structure in his piece. I noticed that the title, " Welcome To the garden of Eden" portrays a perfect paradise which can be interpreted as a

History of Trinidad Essay -- Essays Papers

History of Trinidad The history of Trinidad began far before Columbus landed on the island. Before any Spanish lived on the island, it was inhabited by two indigenous tribes. The Arawaks lived in the southern region of the island. The Caribs, who were regarded as a much more violent and vicious than the Arawaks, lived in the north. The Caribs are described as â€Å"warlike† people and for this reason they were able to withstand more of chance fighting the Spanish conquerors, though not enough. The recorded history of the island begins with Columbus' landing in July 31, 1498. The island was appropriately named Trinidad after the Holy Trinity. Spain showed little interest in the new territory until about 1530 when Antonio Sedeno was named Captain-General of the island for life. This mission did not last as many suspected, Sedeno returned back to Spain within four years after not being able to tame and civilize the natives. Donimgo de Vera in St. Joseph established the first permanent settlement in 1592 in St. Joseph. Over the next two centuries more attempts at colonization were made but with little success. This all culminated in 1699 with the Arena Massacre, in which the natives killed the Spanish governor and all but one of his men and all of the priests. This kept people weary of the island and it's people until the end of the 18th century. True colonization was not until the Cedula of Population was established in 1783. This document was designed to draw people of ot...

Harlem Renaissance Essay

The Harlem Renaissance was a significant event in the history of the United States of America. The Harlem Renaissance centered on the culture of African-Americans and took place at the end of the American Civil War in 1865. This era gave rise to music, art, and literature in African-American culture. Winning the Civil War meant that African American were now free and could, at their risk, go anywhere they wanted. This is when the Great Migration all started. The Great Migration was when large groups of blacks moved in Northern cities like Chicago and New York in massive numbers for jobs because the South had been victim to a crop infestation. Many of them moved particularly to a large neighborhood located in the northern section of Manhattan called Harlem, also known as â€Å"the capital of black America†. By this time, chances for employment and education were available for African-Americans, and many of them expected the same treatment and life the white Americans had be given. This was not to be the case when Plessy v. Ferguson case went to the Supreme Court and the decision had been held that racial segregation was â€Å"constitutionally acceptable†. African-Americans were heartbroken; they wanted equality and all they had been given nothing close to the life of the white Americans, not even a secure environment to live. Though they did have some rights, such as, all African-American men could vote, African-Americans, all, could receive better education, and they got better jobs, but that still seemed to be not enough. African-Americans wanted to part ways with their clingy stereotypes and define themselves as something better. They wanted to be something more than just a â€Å"negro.† The African-Americans didn’t want to be like their white suppressors, but wanted to create a new meaning to what it meant to be black. Starting in the early 1900s the African-American middle class started a push towards racial equality. W.E.B. Du Bois was the central leader of the movement. He collaborated with other African-American activists and white civil rights workers in New York to review the difficult challenges facing the African-American population. 1909 the NAACP, or National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, was found by the group working with Du Bois. This group was specifically organized to advocate civil liberties and fight for African-American rights. Although this cause was thought to be supported by all African-Americans it was not the case with Jamaica-bred Marcus Garvey. Garvey started the â€Å"Back to Africa movement,† which initially was him saying that he thought all African-Americans should just pack up and leave the states because they weren’t welcomed. Garvey founded the UNIA-ACL, or Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League, which promoted the â€Å"Back to Africa†¦Ã¢â‚¬  slogan. Garvey said it was to encourage African-Americans to come together and feel pride in their roots. These groups, although not all supporting staying and fighting, helped the African-American population develop a sense of empowerment for African-Americans everywhere. The Jazz Age was an explosion of African-American culture into music. Just at the end of WWI, there was an economy boost and a change in society. During this time Americans started to relax and take up hobbies. The Prohibition had just been ratified, although it didn’t ban alcohol it made it extremely difficult to get, legally. That is when alcohol clubs, called â€Å"speakeasies† were created. â€Å"Speakeasies† gave Americans the chance to socialize with other, engage in drinking, and go against traditional culture. Some might have even called them Modernist. There was a certain speakeasy in Harlem called the Cotton Club. It’s them as the look of a plantation in the South. They only allowed African-American musicians to play there and only allowed white Americans, with some exceptions, wine and dine there. One talented jazz musician would be Duke Ellington. Ellington was a wiz at playing the piano; he actually played at the Cotton Club from for four years. His band stomped to theatricality routines in numerous shows. Forms of art gave some African-Americans a break from reality. Artists painted things from African-American nightclubs, to African-American toiling in the fields. Aaron Douglas was a famous artist whose work exercised the ‘New Negro’ idea. The ‘New Negro’ idea correlated with Dubois idea of â€Å"twoness† idea, which meant the finding of one’s individuality with a divided awareness of one’s identity. Douglas painted murals, building, and created illustrations for many African-American books. In 1940 Douglas moved to Nashville and founded the Art Department at Fisk University and taught for twenty nine years there. Douglas said, â€Å"†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Our problem is to conceive, develop, establish an art era. Not white art painting black†¦let’s bare our arms and plunge them deep through laughter, through pain, through sorrow, through hope, through disappointment, into the very depths of the souls of our people and drag forth mat erial crude, rough, neglected. Then let’s sing it, dance it, write it, paint it. Let’s do the impossible. Let’s create something transcendentally material, mystically objective. Earthy. Spiritually earthy. Dynamic,† which means, let’s make something incredible out of tragedy. Writing also became a major step forward in the Harlem Renaissance, especially since during this time most African-Americans were illiterate. African-American writers talked about the past of black culture. They wrote about slavery and the effects it had on society today, etc. Common themes of these books ranged from alienation, to wanting to be individual. The most famous African-American writers include: Langston Hughes, Sterling Brown, and Zora Neale Hurston, just to name a few. Zora Neale was a novelist, folklorist, and anthropologist. She believed in the motto, â€Å"I want a busy life, a just mind, and a timely end.† Zora wrote to preserve African-American traditions and to contribute to new literature. Langston Hughes was a writer who collaborated with Hurston and other artists in his book of poetry entitled The Weary Blues. Hughes also wrote an essay called â€Å"The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain,† where he told people what he saw as ‘mountains’ facing African-American writers. In his essay, Hughes mentions a young poet he spoke to and says how the poet wanted to be known as a poet, rather than a â€Å"Negro poet,† which is clearly understandable since there was still racial tension during this time. In conclusion, the Harlem Renaissance was a major event in the history in the United States of America because it brought a culture together using simple things, like music, art, and literature. If it had not been for the Harlem Renaissance, who knows what might’ve happened to the African-American culture, where it might’ve been at this point in time without the occurrence of the Harlem Renaissance. It brought together a race that has, over the years, been beaten, cursed at, talked about, and slaughtered for the comfort of others, and just a simple melody of a song was able to bring them closer together after being ripped apart.